A chronological timetable of historical events that occurred on this day in history. Historical facts of the day in the areas of military, politics, science, music, sports, arts, entertainment and more. Discover what happened today in history.
1567 Lord Darnley, the second husband of Mary, Queen of Scots, is murdered in his sick-bed
in a house in Edinburgh when the house blows up.
1799 The USS Constellation captures the French frigate Insurgente off the West Indies.
1825 The House of Representatives elects John Quincy Adams as the sixth U.S. President.
1861 Jefferson F. Davis is elected president of the Confederate States of America.
1864 Union General George Armstrong Custer marries Elizabeth Bacon in their hometown of
Monroe, MI.
1904 Japanese troops land near Seoul, Korea, after disabling two Russian cruisers.
1909 France agrees to recognize German economic interests in Morocco in exchange for
political supremacy.
1916 Conscription begins in Great Britain as the Military Service Act becomes effective.
1922 The U.S. Congress establishes the World War Foreign Debt Commission.
1942 Chiang Kai-shek meets with Sir Stafford Cripps, the British viceroy in India.
1943 The Red Army takes back Kursk 15 months after it fell to the Germans.
1943 Allied authorities declare Guadalcanal secure after Imperial Japan evacuates its
remaining forces from the island, ending the Battle of Guadalcanal. [From MHQ—The
Quarterly Journal of Military History]
1946 Stalin announces the new five-year plan for the Soviet Union, calling for production
boosts of 50 percent.
1951 Actress Greta Garbo gets U.S. citizenship.
1953 The French destroy six Viet Minh war factories hidden in the jungles of Vietnam.
1964 The U.S. embassy in Moscow is stoned by Chinese and Vietnamese students.
1978 Canada expels 11 Soviets in a spying case.
1994 Nelson Mandela becomes the first black president of South Africa.
Born on February 9
1773 William Henry Harrison, ninth U.S. President and the first to die in office.
1814 Samuel Tilden, philanthropist.
1819 Lydia E. Pinkham, patent-medicine maker and entrepeneur.
1846 William Maybach, German engineer; he designed the first Mercedes automobile.
1871 Howard T. Ricketts, pathologist.
1874 Amy Lowell, poet.
1880 James Stephens, Irish writer (The Charwoman’s Daughter, The Crock of Gold).
1909 Dean Rusk, Secretary of State under presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson.
1923 Brendan Behan, Irish playwright and poet (The Hostage, The Quare Fellow).
1944 Alice Walker, Pulitzer prize-winning author (The Color Purple).
Source: History Net
A chronological timetable of historical events that occurred on this day in history. Historical facts of the day in the areas of military, politics, science, music, sports, arts, entertainment and more. Discover what happened today in history.
1926 – Walt Disney Studios is formed.
1943 – Japanese troops evacuate Guadalcanal, leaving the island in Allied possession after a prolonged campaign.
1952 – Princess Elizabeth proclaims herself Queen at a ceremony in St James’s Palace, London.
1971: The National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotations holds its first trading day. It was the world’s first electronic stock exchange.
1960: The first 8 stars are added to the Hollywood Walk of Fame. More than 2400 five-pointed stars have since been embedded in the sidewalks of Hollywood Boulevard and Vine Street to honor stars of the entertainment industry.
1950: The Stasi, East Germany’s notorious secret police, is established. The “Staatssicherheit”, which was dissolved in 1990, is considered one of the most repressive intelligence agencies in the world.
1910: The Boy Souts of America is founded. 3 years earlier, British General Robert Baden-Powell had founded the Scout movement in England.
1879: Sandford Fleming proposes the use of time zones. The later introduction of Universal Standard Time, which is based on time zones, revolutionized time keeping.
Births on this day
1941: Nick Nolte, American actor
1932: John Williams, American pianist, composer, conductor
1931: James Dean, American actor
1925: Jack Lemmon, American actor, singer, director
1828: Jules Verne, French author
2002 – The opening ceremonies for the 2002 Winter Olympics in Utah takes place
Births on this day
1941: Nick Nolte, American actor
1932: John Williams, American pianist, composer, conductor
1931: James Dean, American actor
1925: Jack Lemmon, American actor, singer, director
1828: Jules Verne, French author
(Agencies)
A chronological timetable of historical events that occurred on this day in history. Historical facts of the day in the areas of military, politics, science, music, sports, arts, entertainment and more. Discover what happened today in history.
457: A Thracian officer by the name of Leo is proclaimed as emperor of the East by the army general,
Aspar, on the death of the Emperor Marcian.
1668: The Netherlands, England and Sweden conclude an alliance directed against Louis XIV of France.
1783: The Siege of Gibraltar, which was pursued by the Spanish and the French since July 24, 1779, is
finally lifted.
1818: The first successful U.S. educational magazine, Academician, begins publication in New York City.
1882: American pugilist John L. Sullivan becomes the last of the bare-knuckle world heavyweight
champions with his defeat of Paddy Ryan in Mississippi City.
1913: The Turks lose 5,000 men in a battle with the Bulgarian army in Gallipoli.
1915: Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg moves on the Russians at Masurian Lakes.
1917: The British steamer California is sunk off the coast of Ireland by a German U-boat.
1926: Negro History Week, originated by Carter G. Woodson, is observed for the first time.
1928: The United States signs an arbitration treaty with France.
1931: Amelia Earhart weds George Putnam in Connecticut.
1944: The Germans launch a second attack against the Allied beachhead at Anzio, Italy. They hope to
push the Allies back into the sea.
1950: The United States recognizes Vietnam under the leadership of Emperor Bao Dai, not Ho Chi Minh
who is recognized by the Soviets.
1963: The Mona Lisa is put on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.
1964: The British band The Beatles are greeted by 25,000 fans upon their arrival in the United States at
JFK Airport.
1965: U.S. jets hit Dong Hoi guerrilla base in reprisal for the Viet Cong raids.
1968: The North Vietnamese use 11 Soviet-built light tanks to overrun the U.S. Special Forces camp at
Lang Vei at the end of an 18-hour long siege.
1978: Ethiopia mounts a counterattack against Somalia.
1983: Iran opens an invasion in the southeast of Iraq.
Born on February 7
1477: Sir Thomas More, English statesman and writer; famous for Utopia. Later executed for refusing to
accept Henry VIII as the head of the church.
1804: John Deere, farm equipment manufacturer
1812: Charles Dickens, prolific English novelist; his stories reflected life in Victorian England. Some of his
more famous works include Oliver Twist, A Christmas Carol and A Tale of Two Cities.
1837: Sir James Murray, Scottish lexicographer and editor.
1867: Laura Ingalls Wilder, author; her works were the basis for television’s Little House on the Prairie.
1885: Sinclair Lewis, novelist of satire and realism. (Arrowsmith, Elmer Gantry).
1905: Ulf Svante von Euler, Swedish physiologist.
A chronological timetable of historical events that occurred on this day in history. Historical facts of the day in the areas of military, politics, science, music, sports, arts, entertainment and more. Discover what happened today in history.
1626 Huguenot rebels and the French sign the Peace of La Rochelle.
1778 France recognizes the United States and signs a treaty of aid in Paris.
1788 Massachusetts becomes the sixth state to ratify the Constitution.
1862 Forces under the command of Brigadier General Ulysses S. Grant and Flag Officer Andrew Hull
Foote capture Fort Henry, Tennessee, in the Battle of Fort Henry, giving the Union its first victory
of the Civil War.
1891 The Dalton Gang commits its first crime, a train robbery in Alila, CA.
1899 The Spanish-American War ends.
1900 President McKinley appoints W.H. Taft as a commissioner to report on the Philippines.
1904 Japan’s foreign minister severs all ties with Russia, citing delaying tactics in negotiations over
Manchuria.
1916 Germany admits full liability for the Lusitania incident and recognizes the right of the United State
to claim indemnity.
1922 The Washington Disarmament Conference comes to an end with the ratification of the final treaty
forbidding fortification of the Aleutian Islands for 14 years.
1926 Mussolini warns Germany to stop agitation in Tyrol.
1929 Germany accepts the Kellogg-Briand pact.
1933 Adolf Hitler‘s Third Reich begins press censorship.
1936 Adolf Hitler opens the Fourth Winter Olympics.
1941 The RAF clears the way as British take Benghazi, trapping thousands of Italians.
1944 Kwajalein Island in the Central Pacific falls to U.S. Army troops.
1945 MacArthur reports the fall of Manila, and the liberation of 5,000 prisoners.
1952 Elizabeth becomes Queen of England after her father, King George VI, dies.
1963 The United States reports that all Soviet offensive arms are out of Cuba.
1964 Cuba blocks the water supply to the Guantanamo Naval Base in retaliation for the seizure by the
United States of four Cuban fishing boats.
1964 Paris and London agree to build a rail tunnel under the English Channel.
1965 Seven U.S. GIs are killed in a Viet Cong raid on a base in Pleiku.
1968 Charles de Gaulle opens the 19th Winter Olympics in France.
1975 President Gerald Ford asks Congress for $497 million for aid to Cambodia.
1977 Queen Elizabeth marks her Silver Jubilee.
1982 Civil rights workers begin a march from Carrolton to Montgomery, Alabama.
Born on February 6
1756 Aaron Burr, 3rd U.S. Vice President.
1895 George Herman “Babe” Ruth, baseball player with the Boston Red Sox, the New York Yankees and
the Boston Braves. He was the first player to hit 60 home runs in one season.
1911 Ronald Reagan, film actor and 40th U.S. President (1981-1989).
1913 Mary Douglas Leakey, archaeologist and paleoanthropologist.
1932 Francois Truffaut, French film director (The 400 Blows, Shoot the Piano Player).
1933 Walter E. Fauntroy, politician and civil rights leader.
1940 Tom Brokaw, NBC News anchorman.
1945 Bob Marley, reggae musician.
Source: HistoryNet
The Mughal Empire was the greatest ruler in India. They ruled in India from 1556 to 1707. During the Mughal Empire, India became united under one rule, and had very prosperous cultural and political years. There were some men such as Babar, grandson to the Great Asian conqueror Tamerlane and the conqueror Genghis Khan from the northern region of the Ganges, river valley, who decided to take over Khyber, and eventually, all of India.
The Mughal Empire
Babar (1526-1530):
The great grandson of Tamerlane and Genghis Khan, was the first Mughal emperor in India. He confronted and defeated Lodhi in 1526 at the first battle of Panipat, and so came to establish the Mughal Empire in India. Babar ruled until 1530, and was succeeded by his son Humayun.
Humayun (1530-1540 and 1555-1556):
The eldest son of Babar, succeeded his father and became the second emperor of the Mughal Empire. He ruled India for nearly a decade but was ousted by Sher Shah Suri, the Afghan ruler. Humayun wandered for about 15 years after his defeat. Meanwhile, Sher Shah Suri died and Humayun was able to defeat his successor, Sikandar Suri and regain his crown of the Hindustan. However, soon after, he died in 1556 at a young age of 48 years.
Numerous civil works were carried out during his short reign; planting of trees, wells and the building of Sarai (inns) for travelers was done
Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545):
Sher Shah Suriwas an Afghan leader who took over the Mughal Empire after defeating Humayun in 1540. Sher Shah occupied the throne of Delhi for not more than five years, but his reign proved to be a landmark in the Sub-continent. As a king, he has several achievements in his credit. He established an efficient public administration. He set up a revenue collection system based on the measurement of land. Justice was provided to the common man. Numerous civil works were carried out during his short reign; planting of trees, wells and the building of Sarai (inns) for travelers was done. Roads were laid; it was under his rule that the Grand Trunk road from Delhi to Kabul was built. The currency was also changed to finely minted silver coins called Dam. However, Sher Shah did not survive long after his accession on the throne and died in 1545 after a short reign of five years.
Akbar (1556-1605):
Humayun’s heir, Akbar, was born in exile and was only 13 years old when his father died. Akbar’s reign holds a certain prominence in history; he was the ruler who actually fortified the foundations of the Mughal Empire. After a series of conquests, he managed to subdue most of India. Areas not under the empire were designated as tributaries. He also adopted a conciliatory policy towards the Rajputs, hence reducing any threat from them. Akbar was not only a great conqueror, but a capable organizer and a great administrator as well. He set up a host of institutions that proved to be the foundation of an administrative system that operated even in British India. Akbar’s rule also stands out due to his liberal policies towards the non-Muslims, his religious innovations, the land revenue system and his famous Mansabdari system. Akbar’s Mansabdari system became the basis of Mughal military organization and civil administration. Akbar died in 1605, nearly 50 years after his ascension to the throne, and was buried outside of Agra at Sikandra. His son Jehangir then assumed the throne.
Jehangir:
Akbar was succeeded by his son, Salim, who took the title of Jehangir, meaning “Conqueror of the World”. He married Mehr-un-Nisa whom he gave the title of Nur Jahan (light of the world). He loved her with blind passion and handed over the complete reins of administration to her. He expanded the empire through the addition of Kangra and Kistwar and consolidated the Mughal rule in Bengal. Jehangir lacked the political enterprise of his father Akbar. But he was an honest man and a tolerant ruler. He strived to reform society and was tolerant towards Hindus, Christians and Jews. However, relations with Sikhs were strained, and the fifth of the ten Sikh gurus, Arjun Dev, was executed at Jehangir’s orders for giving aid and comfort to Khusrau, Jehangir’s rebellious son. Art, literature, and architecture prospered under Jehangir’s rule, and the Mughal gardens in Srinagar remain an enduring testimony to his artistic taste. He died in 1627.
Shah Jahan:
Jehangir was succeeded by his second son Khurram in 1628. Khurram took the name of Shah Jahan, i.e. The emperor of the World. He further expanded his Empire to Kandhar in the north and conquered most of Southern India. The Mughal Empire was at its zenith during Shah Jahan’s rule. This was due to almost 100 years of unparalleled prosperity and peace. As a result, during this reign, the world witnessed the unique development of arts and culture of the Mughal Empire. Shah Jahan has been called the “architect king”. The Red Fort and the Jama Masjid, both in Delhi, stand out as towering achievements of both civil engineering and art. Yet above all else, Shah Jahan is remembered today for the Taj Mahal, the massive white marble mausoleum constructed for his wife Mumtaz Mahal along the banks of the Yamuna River in Agra.
Aurangzeb:
Aurangzeb ascended the throne in 1658 and ruled supreme till 1707. Thus Aurangzeb ruled for 50 years, matching Akbar’s reign in longevity. But unfortunately he kept his five sons away from the royal court with the result that none of them was trained in the art of government. This proved to be very damaging for the Mughals later on. During his 50 years of rule, Aurangzeb tried to fulfill his ambition of bringing the entire Sub-continent under one rule. It was under him that the Mughal Empire reached its peak in matter of the area. He worked hard for years, but his health broke down in the end. He left behind no personal wealth when he died in 1707, at the age of 90 years. With his death, the forces of disintegration set in and the mighty Mughal empire started collapsing.
(Agencies)
Mesopotamia is a region of southwest Asia in the Tigris and Euphrates river system that benefitted from the area’s climate and geography to host the beginnings of human civilization. Its history is marked by many important inventions that changed the world, including the concept of time, math, the wheel, sailboats, maps and writing. Mesopotamia is also defined by a changing succession of ruling bodies from different areas and cities that seized control over a period of thousands of years.
WHERE IS MESOPOTAMIA?
Mesopotamia is located in the region now known as the Middle East, which includes parts of southwest Asia and lands around the eastern Mediterranean Sea. The word “Mesopotamia” is formed from the ancient words “meso,” meaning between or in the middle of, and “potamos” meaning river. Situated in the fertile valleys between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the region is now home to modern-day Iraq, Kuwait, Turkey and Syria.
MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILIZATION
Humans first settled in Mesopotamia in the Paleolithic era. By 14,000 B.C., people in the region lived in small settlements with circular houses. Five thousand years later, these houses formed farming communities following the domestication of animals and the development of agriculture, most notably irrigation techniques that took advantage of the proximity of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Agricultural progress was the work of the dominant Ubaid culture, which had absorbed the Halaf culture before it.
ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA
These scattered agrarian communities started in the northern part of the ancient Mesopotamian region and spread south, continuing to grow for several thousand years until forming what modern humans would recognize as cities, which were considered the work of the Sumer people.
Uruk was the first of these cities, dating back to around 3200 B.C., a mud brick metropolis built on the riches brought from trade and conquest and featuring public art, gigantic columns and temples, and with a population of some 50,000 citizens. Sumerians are also responsible for the earliest form of written language, cuneiform, with which they kept detailed clerical records.
By 3000 B.C., Mesopotamia was firmly under the control of the Sumerian people. Sumer contained several decentralized city-states—Eridu, Nippur, Lagash, Uruk, Kish and Ur.
The first king of a united Sumer is recorded as Etana of Kish. It’s unknown whether Etana really existed, as he and many of the rulers listed in the Sumerian King List that was developed around 2100 B.C. are all featured in Sumerian mythology as well. Etana was followed by Meskiaggasher, the king of the city-state Uruk. A warrior named Lugalbanda took control around 2750 B.C.
GILGAMESH
Gilgamesh, the legendary subject of the Epic of Gilgamesh, is said to be Lugalbanda’s son. Gilgamesh is believed to have been born in Uruk around 2700 B.C. The Epic of Gilgamesh is considered to be the earliest great work of literature and the inspiration for some of the stories in the Bible.
King Lugalzagesi was the final king of Sumer, falling to Sargon of Akkad, a Semitic people, in 2334 B.C. They were briefly allies, conquering the city of Kish together, but Lugalzagesi’s mercenary Akkadian army was ultimately loyal to Sargon.
SARGON AND THE AKKADIANS
The Akkadian Empire existed from 2234-2154 B.C. under the leadership of the now-titled Sargon the Great, considered the world’s first multicultural empire with a central government.
Little is known of Sargon’s background, but legends give him a similar origin to the Biblical story of Moses. He was at one point an officer who worked for the king of Kish, and Akkadia was a city that Sargon himself established. When the city of Uruk invaded Kish, Sargon took Kish from Uruk and was encouraged to continue with conquest.
Sargon expanded his empire through military means, conquering all of Sumer and moving into what is now Syria. Under Sargon, trade beyond Mesopotamian borders grew, and architecture became more sophisticated, notably the appearance of ziggurats, flat-topped buildings with a pyramid shape and steps.
GUTIANS
The final king of the Akkadian Empire, Shar-kali-sharri, died in 2193 B.C., and Mesopotamia went through a century of unrest, with different groups struggling for control.
Among these were the Gutian people, barbarians from the Zagros Mountains. The Gutian rule is considered a disorderly one that caused a severe downturn in the empire’s prospects.
UR-NAMMA
In 2100 B.C. the city of Ur attempted to establish a dynasty for a new empire. The ruler of Ur-Namma, the king of the city of Ur, brought Sumerians back into control after Utu-hengal, the leader of the city of Uruk, defeated the Gutians.
Under Ur-Namma, the first code of law in recorded history appeared. Ur-Namma was attacked by both the Elamites and the Amorites and defeated in 2004 B.C.
THE BABYLONIANS
Choosing Babylon as the capital, the Amorites took control and established Babylonia. Kings were considered deities and the most famous of these was Hammurabi, who ruled 1792–1750 B.C. Hammurabi worked to expand the empire, and the Babylonians were almost continually at war. Hammurabi’s most famous contribution is his list of laws, better known as the Code of Hammurabi, devised around 1772 B.C.
Hammurabi’s innovation was not just writing down the laws for everyone to see, but making sure that everyone throughout the empire followed the same legal codes, and that governors in different areas did not enact their own. The list of laws also featured recommended punishments, to ensure that every citizen had the right to the same justice.
In 1750 B.C. the Elamites conquered the city of Ur. Together with the control of the Amorites, this is considered to mark the end of Sumerian culture.
THE HITTITES
The Hittites, who were centered around Anatolia and Syria, conquered the Babylonians around 1595 B.C. Smelting was a significant contribution of the Hittites, allowing for more sophisticated weaponry that lead them to expand the empire even further. Their attempts to keep the technology to themselves eventually failed, and other empires became a match for them.
The Hittites pulled out shortly after sacking Babylon, and the Kassites took control of the city. Hailing from the mountains east of Mesopotamia, their period of rule saw immigrants from India and Europe arriving, and travel sped up thanks to the use of horses with chariots and carts. The Kassites abandoned their own culture after a couple of generations of dominance, allowing themselves to be absorbed into Babylonian civilization.
THE ASSYRIANS
The Assyrian Empire, under the leadership of Ashur-uballit I, rose around 1365 B.C. in the areas between the lands controlled by the Hittites and the Kassites. Around 1220 B.C., King Tukulti-Ninurta I aspired to rule all of Mesopotamia and seized Babylon. The Assyrian Empire continued to expand over the next two centuries, moving into modern-day Palestine and Syria.
Under the rule of Ashurnasirpal II in 884 B.C., the empire created a new capitol, Nimrud, built from the spoils of conquest and brutality that made Ashurnasirpal II a hated figure. His son Shalmaneser spent the majority of his reign fighting off an alliance between Syria, Babylon and Egypt, and conquering Israel. One of his sons rebelled against him, and Shalmaneser sent another son, Shamshi-Adad, to fight for him. Three years later, Shamshi-Adad ruled.
SARGON II
A new dynasty began in 722 B.C. when Sargon II seized power. Modeling himself on Sargon the Great, he divided the empire into provinces and kept the peace. His undoing came when the Chaldeans attempted to invade, and Sargon II sought an alliance with them. The Chaldeans made a separate alliance with the Elamites, and together they took Babylonia.
Sargon II lost to the Chaldeans but switched to attacking Syria, parts of Egypt and Gaza, embarking on a spree of conquest before eventually dying in battle against the Cimmerians from Russia.
Sargon II’s grandson Esarhaddon ruled from 681 to 669 B.C., and went on a destructive campaign of conquest through Ethiopia, Palestine and Egypt, destroying cities he rampaged through after looting them. Esarhaddon struggled to rule his expanded empire. A paranoid leader, he suspected many in his court of conspiring against him and had them killed.
His son Ashurbanipal is considered the final great ruler of the Assyrian empire. Ruling from 669 to 627 B.C., he faced a rebellion in Egypt, losing the territory, and from his brother, the king of Babylonia, whom he defeated. Ashurbanipal is best remembered for creating Mesopotamia’s first library.
NEBUCHADNEZZAR
In 626 B.C. the throne was seized by Babylonian public official Nabopolassar, ushering in the rule of the Semitic dynasty from Chaldea. In 616 B.C. Nabopolassar attempted to take Assyria but failed.
His son Nebuchadnezzar reigned over the Babylonian Empire following an invasion effort in 614 B.C. by King Cyaxares of Media that pushed the Assyrians further away. Nebuchadnezzar is known for his ornate architecture, especially the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Walls of Babylon and the Ishtar Gate. Under his rule, women and men had equal rights.
Nebuchadnezzar is also responsible for the conquest of Jerusalem, which he destroyed in 586 B.C., taking its inhabitants into captivity, and appeared in the Old Testament because of this action.
THE PERSIAN EMPIRE
Persian Emperor Cyrus II seized power during the reign of Nabonidus in 539 B.C. Nabonidus was such an unpopular king that Mesopotamians did not rise to defend him during the invasion. Babylonian culture is considered to have ended under Persian rule, following a slow decline of use in cuneiform and other cultural hallmarks.
By the time Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire in 331 B.C., most of the great cities of Mesopotamia no longer existed and the culture had been long overtaken. Eventually, the region was taken by the Romans in 116 A.D. and finally Arabic Muslims in 651 A.D.
MESOPOTAMIAN ART
While making art predates civilization in Mesopotamia, the innovations there include creating art on a larger scale, often in the context of their grandiose and complex architecture, and frequently employing metalwork. One of the earliest examples of metalwork in art comes from southern Mesopotamia, a silver statuette of a kneeling bull from 3000 B.C. Before this, painted ceramics and limestone were the common art forms.
Another metal-based work, a goat standing on its hind legs and leaning on the branches of a tree, featuring gold and copper along with other materials, was found in the the Great Death Pit at Ur and dates to 2500 B.C.
Mesopotamian art often depicted its rulers and the glories of their lives. Also created around 2500 B.C. in Ur is the intricate Standard of Ur, a shell and limestone structure that features an early example of complex pictorial narrative, depicting a history of war and peace.
In 2230 B.C., Akkadian King Naram-Sin was the subject of an elaborate work in limestone that depicts a military victory in the Zagros Mountains and presents Naram-Sin as divine.
MESOPOTAMIAN GODS
Religious worship was another preoccupation for Mesopotamians. A painted terracotta from 1775 B.C. gives an example of the sophistication of Babylonian art, portraying either the goddess Ishtar or her sister Ereshkigal, accompanied by night creatures.
Among the most dynamic forms of Mesopotamian art are the reliefs of the Assyrian kings in their palaces, notably from Ashurbanipal’s reign around 635 B.C. One famous relief in his palace in Nimrud shows him leading an army into battle, accompanied by the winged god Assur.
Ashurbanipal is also featured in multiple reliefs that portray his frequent lion-hunting activity. An impressive lion image also figures into the Ishtar Gate in 585 B.C., during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II and fashioned from glazed bricks.
Mesopotamian art returned to the public eye in the 21st century when museums in Iraq were looted during conflicts there. Many pieces went missing, including a 4,300-year-old bronze mask of an Akkadian king, jewelry from Ur, a solid gold Sumerian harp, 80,000 cuneiform tablets, and numerous other irreplaceable items.
(Agencies)
As the 15th century drew to a close, some 60 million people lived across the Americas, sustaining themselves with the bounty of the vast lands they inhabited. But with the arrival of the first European settlers, waves of new diseases, along with warfare, slavery and other brutality would kill off around 56 million people, or around 90 percent of the indigenous population.
Now, scientists from the University College London (United Kingdom) argue in a new study that this “Great Dying” that followed European colonization of the Americas may have actually affected Earth’s climate.
Their version of events, published in Quaternary Science Reviews, goes like this: After so many indigenous people died, no one was left to tend many of their fields, and trees and other vegetation quickly reclaimed huge expanses of land previously used for agriculture. As a result, enough carbon dioxide (CO₂) was removed from the atmosphere to actually cool down the planet, contributing to the coldest part of the mysterious period that historians have called the Little Ice Age.
A map highlighting regions known to have been affected by disease outbreaks by 1600 CE and pre-Columbian land use.
A map highlighting regions known to have been affected by disease outbreaks by 1600 CE and pre-Columbian land use.
During this period, which peaked in the early 17th century, the Thames River in London consistently froze over, and harsh winters and cold summers across the globe were blamed for causing famines, encouraging witch hunts and even sparking wars.
The scientists drew on existing population records to estimate just how many people were living in the Americas around 1492—the year, of course, that Christopher Columbus arrived in the Caribbean. They found that while 60 million (or around 10 percent of the world’s total population) lived across the Americas at the tail end of the 15th century, that number would be reduced to just 5 or 6 million in the decades that followed European colonization. The rest had been wiped out by conflict or disease, including smallpox, measles, influenza and the bubonic plague.
With few people left to manage the fields, the scientists estimated that some 56 million hectares of land previously used for agriculture—an area about the size of modern-day France—would have fallen into disuse. If forest, savannah and other vegetation had quickly covered that land, they found, the additional vegetation would have pulled enough (CO₂) out of the atmosphere to lower the concentration of that gas by 7-10 parts per million (ppm), or 7-10 molecules of CO₂ in every 1 million air molecules.
To put this into perspective, study co-author Mark Maslin told BBC News that today’s burning of fossil fuels produces about 3ppm of CO₂ per year. “So we’re talking a large amount of carbon that’s being sucked out of the atmosphere,” he clarified.
The scientists also point to the ice core record from Antarctica to support their theory, as air bubbles trapped in the ice do show a fall in carbon dioxide around 1610, at the beginning of the Little Ice Age. “Human actions at that time caused a drop in atmospheric CO₂ that cooled the planet long before human civilization was concerned with the idea of climate change,” the authors of the new study wrote in Newsweek. The new study suggests that human impact on the planet stretches back centuries before the Industrial Revolution began, with the collapse of farming in the Americans hundreds of years ago.
(Agencies)